Is Altruism Possible?

 by  Daisy Sissons

Belisarius asks for alms
(Jacques-Louis David, 1780)

The main theory relating to this ethical question is Ethical Egoism. This is a theory that denies the validity of altruistic behaviour entirely and instead it claims that all moral actions should be motivated by self interest, although this may not be immediately obvious, Ethical Egoism is often likened to Psychological Egoism, however they are not the same. Psychological Egoism is NOT an ethical theory in the sense it does not tell us what we ought to do but rather it aims to explain human behaviour. Another key difference is, Ethical Egoism values the importance of good moral behaviour however this does not matter to a Psychological Egoist. 

There are two different ways that Ethical Egoist Behaviour is cultivated. Firstly, Long term Egoism. If you choose to help a member of your community find somewhere to stay. This could be seen as altruistic behaviour because it does not benefit you instantly however, subconsciously or not, you know that they might help you in the future and therefore this is for personal gain. Secondly, Short Term Egoism. This could be  a person donating to charity, again this seems to be altruistic behaviour however the philosopher Julie Driven believes that the need to appear ‘good’  and to avoid guilt or shame plays an important part in explaining why humans donate to charitable causes but also explains why actions cannot be altruistic. When seeing an advert urging you to raise money for starving children with graphic images it affects our human empathy and therefore we donate in order to distance yourself from the situation and relive some of the guilt and shame. This allows us as humans to have ‘done our bit’.  

At first inspection Ethical Egoism does not seem to promote good moral behaviour and  some people might argue that Ethical Egoism is vague as it explains why humans perform moral actions but it does not give specific information regarding what we ought to do. This is different from The Divine Command Theory which believes that God created objective and eternal morals for all people to follow in every situation. This implies deeply altruistic behaviour because often people sacrifice their whole lives in order to be God’s ‘Servant’. However in the same way that Immanuael Kant does not want to give an objective list because this takes away our autonomy, Ethical Egoism does not give a list of actions because this does not correspond with the theory. To blindly follow a list of rules would force some type of  altruistic behaviour but we cannot follow a list of rules because humans do not have the ability to act selflessly. Therefore by promoting Max Stirner’s ‘union of egoists’ we encourage the respect of others and therefore promotes carefully thought out good moral behaviour (similar to protecting the freedom of others in Existentialist ideas). 

Darwin’s explanation of Evolution rules out the possibility of Altruistic behaviour. The principle of ‘survival of the fittest’ only allows for selfish behaviour. Those who help others do not survive. If a climber was in a situation where in order to save their teammates they must cut themselves off their rope and fall to death. Philosopher: Jeremy Bentham would argue that Utilitarianism aims to combat selfishness by thinking of what benefits the majority. They would argue that the climber should sacrifice themselves for the good of the majority. However this ultimately leads to their death. An Egoist would argue that, unless the climber is suicidal, there is no benefit in saving their teammates over himself. If they choose to cut themselves off and then the others are rescued moments later this would be a monumental waste. Therefore Humans should, and often do, act selfishly in order to preserve their own lives. According to Jean Paul Sartre ‘man is nothing else but what he makes of himself’. This implies that we are totally alone in life and it would be ridiculous to prioritize the other over the self. Thus we must act selfishly to find euphoria. 

Acts of Ethical Egoism can be found right at the start of human civilisation. Cave men helped each other to find food or shelter in the hope or knowledge that this favour will be returned when they are in need. Some people might suggest that the discussion is more complex than this. This example shows a very individualist perspective. There are collectivist cultures that have a different view of the self, they believe it is interlinked with their community rather than being seperate. This culture is thought to have come from collectivist communities that rely on staple foods that are labour intensive and require cooperation to cultivate, like rice for example. Working together (altruistic behaviour) in this sense is not just because it will benefit the individual in the future when they call in a favour but mainly because it is necessary for the whole community's survival. However although it is not immediately obvious, Egoist behaviour is present because the individual knows that if they do not cooperate with the community every person will die. This does not have good implications for the individual as they will mostly likely lose family and their support network. I strongly believe that this is an example of non direct ethical egoism.  

I strongly believe that ethics is  concerned  primarily with self interest rather than the need of others. Firstly the theory of evolution does not allow altruistic behaviours to survive and therefore they cannot be passed down through generations. Ultimately many societies are moving away from Religion (and therefore the Divine Command Theory). Coupling the move towards secularism and the nature of capitalism and the ‘consumer society’ it is becoming impossible to care for others without detrimental consequences to our own needs. In the final analysis I would argue that it is not advisable to perform altruistic behaviour because you cannot be successful in society without caring for yourself first, and therefore following Ethical Egoism.